Generally, cardiovascular exercise and resistance training transiently increase testosterone concentrations in men (reviewed in Hackney , Kraemer and Ratamess ) and women (Enea et al., 2009), although a few studies report null effects. In women with hyperandrogenism, mean levels of total testosterone have been reported to be 62.1 ng/dL. Total levels of testosterone in the body have been reported as 264 to 916 ng/dL (nanograms per deciliter) in non-obese European and American men age 19 to 39 years, while mean testosterone levels in adult men have been reported as 630 ng/dL. When testosterone levels are low, gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) is released by the hypothalamus, which in turn stimulates the pituitary gland to release FSH and LH. The same research found fathers (outside competitive environments) had the lowest testosterone levels compared to other males. Physical presence may be required for women who are in relationships for the testosterone–partner interaction, where same-city partnered women have lower testosterone levels than long-distance partnered women.
Studies have found higher pre-natal testosterone or lower digit ratio to be correlated with higher aggression. Studies conducted have found direct correlation between testosterone and dominance, especially among the most violent criminals in prison who had the highest testosterone. Studies have found that testosterone facilitates aggression by modulating vasopressin receptors in the hypothalamus. have been undertaken on the relationship between more general aggressive behavior, and feelings, and testosterone.|These independent partial syntheses of testosterone from a cholesterol base earned both Butenandt and Ruzicka the joint 1939 Nobel Prize in Chemistry. The chemical synthesis of testosterone from cholesterol was achieved in August that year by Butenandt and Hanisch. The Organon group in the Netherlands were the first to isolate the hormone, identified in a May 1935 paper "On Crystalline Male Hormone from Testicles (Testosterone)". He reported in The Lancet that his vigor and feeling of well-being were markedly restored but the effects were transient, and Brown-Séquard's hopes for the compound were dashed. Testosterone has been detected at variably higher and lower levels among men of various nations and from various backgrounds, explanations for the causes of this have been relatively diverse. Testosterone's bioavailable concentration is commonly determined using the Vermeulen calculation or more precisely using the modified Vermeulen method, which considers the dimeric form of sex hormone-binding globulin.|The 6β-hydroxylation of testosterone is catalyzed mainly by CYP3A4 and to a lesser extent CYP3A5 and is responsible for 75 to 80% of cytochrome P450-mediated testosterone metabolism. In addition to conjugation and the 17-ketosteroid pathway, testosterone can also be hydroxylated and oxidized in the liver by cytochrome P450 enzymes, including CYP3A4, CYP3A5, CYP2C9, CYP2C19, and CYP2D6. A small portion of approximately 3% of testosterone is reversibly converted in the liver into androstenedione by 17β-HSD. In the hepatic 17-ketosteroid pathway of testosterone metabolism, testosterone is converted in the liver by 5α-reductase and 5β-reductase into 5α-DHT and the inactive 5β-DHT, respectively.|These pellets are a long-acting form of testosterone therapy. This approach will include testosterone pellets as well as closely monitoring your testosterone lab values for continued optimization of health. Low testosterone affects almost 40% of men aged 45 and older and for women the number is estimated to be between 10 and 15 million. Any previous policies that permitted mixed team competition against a women’s team are rendered moot and not applicable as the BOG policy adopted in February 2025 supersedes all previous policies. This also applies to a student-athlete assigned male at birth competing as an individual against women.|Pubertal effects begin to occur when androgen has been higher than normal adult female levels for months or years. For postnatal effects in both males and females, these are mostly dependent on the levels and duration of circulating free testosterone. The participation policy for transgender student-athletes adopted by the Board of Governors and effective February 6, 2025, does not permit competition by an individual assigned male at birth to compete on a women’s team. Student-athletes assigned male at birth may not receive athletic scholarships that are otherwise designated for women. Foster C. Monitoring training in athletes with reference to overtraining syndrome. Specifically, testosterone levels increased and cortisol levels decreased.|This can be particularly beneficial for strength-based sports and bodybuilding. Enhanced Muscle Mass and StrengthTestosterone is a key hormone for muscle growth and repair. Ongoing advances in androgen detection will be offset by those athletes with better research, better access, and better monitoring to avoid an "adverse analytical finding".|Many DSDs are caused not by abnormalities in the sex chromosomes, but by autosomal disorders that cause alterations in androgen production or androgen responsiveness (Jones and Lopez, 2006). Currently, gonadal dysgenesis is permissable in IAAF competition, with the proviso that the gonads are removed to prevent malignancy (IAAF, 2006). Although many affected individuals are initially reared as females, further masculinization may develop at puberty, and some will subsequently switch to a masculine gender identity (Reiner, 2005).|Attention, memory, and spatial ability are key cognitive functions affected by testosterone in humans. Testosterone does not appear to increase the risk of developing prostate cancer. It has been theorized that brain masculinization is occurring since no significant changes have been identified in other parts of the body. The levels remain in a pubertal range for a few months, but usually reach the barely detectable levels of childhood by 4–7 months of age.}
Think of how challenging it would be to get someone to exercise –which is one of the best treatments for both conditions – if they have been told their body is falling apart. Regardless of its accuracy,  some individuals will respond to negative information by performing worse or engaging in negative behaviors like skipping a training session. For example, if someone is told they’re "overtrained" by their smartwatch, they are now primed to feel more sore, more tired, and experience a real reduction in performance. When a coach tells an athlete they are overtrained versus when a sports medicine physician says the same thing, they may mean entirely different things — and the athlete’s response to that framing can be very different. Is my performance declining because I am overtrained, or undertrained? If there is an optimal window after recovery when the system is briefly supercompensated, then missing that window means missing the adaptation — or worse, training into a state of cumulative fatigue that deepens with each mistimed session.
However, this does suggest that intensity, not frequency or volume per se’, may be the necessary ingredient for overreaching in resistance training. Human performance varies significantly day-to-day and can obscure underlying trends. A similar study had seven subjects perform a true one-rep max bench press every single day for 38 days.11 All seven improved their bench press, with an average increase of nearly 30% from where they started. In another study, three competitive strength athletes attempted a one-rep max squat every single day for 30 consecutive days, plus additional volume at submaximal loads. Most adapted and improved their fitness, whereas nobody met OTS criteria. That does not mean nothing real is happening to athletes who present with this picture. Others lacked sufficient follow up on recovery and performance to identify OTS, and no reliable biomarker for OTS was identified.8 While reduced performance was identified in some studies, this does not meet criteria for OTS.
For example, did you know that testosterone is a key player in prostate cancer? When you think of testosterone, what comes to mind? Sports Medicine offers a range of additional features designed to increase the visibility, readership and educational value of the journal’s content (more information). At Gameday we use B12 to support red blood cell and nerve health in men who feel fatigued or need a reliable vitality boost. Vitamin B12 injections help boost energy, improve focus and support metabolic health by delivering a potent dose of this essential nutrient directly into your bloodstream. It’s a safe, non-invasive treatment that improves erectile function, sensation, and long-term performance without medication.
LEA, sleep restriction, and excessive training load for the available resources. Because not all individuals with EHMC have symptoms, it can be challenging to diagnose athletes, much less treat them. Many men with EHMC don’t even realize anything is wrong, while others experience a clear set of red flags such as decreased bone density, sexual dysfunction, or persistent fatigue and mood disturbances.
These athletes often continue to perform at a high level without a noticeable drop in speed or power, but their internal "factory" has dialed back production to conserve and re-allocate resources. If your labs look alarming but your training is going well, you are almost certainly not overtrained. The separator from OTS is performance. Centrally, the hypothalamus reduces LH pulsatility, suppressing testosterone production. EHMC involves dysfunction at two levels. While it was first observed in marathon runners in the 1980s, it is now recognized in high-volume strength and power athletes as well.20 Specifically, many studies do not measure performance, despite a sustained decrease in performance being part of the OTS criteria.

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